Michelangelo Buonarroti Essay -- European History Renaissance

Michelangelo Buonarroti There was a time period from 1400 C.E. to 1600 C.E., referred to as the Renaissance. The Renaissance was an age of discovery shown through , architecture, poetry, art, sculpture, and theater based on a Greco-Roman culture. Among the many Renaissance thinkers there was a man named Michelangelo Buonarroti. Michelangelo was an architect, sculptor, painter, poet, and an engineer. He preferred sculpting because he felt he was shaping mankind, which reflected the Renaissance era. The Renaissance encouraged everyone to express their human potential and become a master of their universe. In contrast to the dark middle age ideas of a supernatural orientation to life, the Renaissance encouraged a more natural world and human life orientation. Michelangelo reflected the Renaissance ideals through his works of art; such as, the Sistine Chapel, many sculptures including David and the Pieta, and architecture including Capitoline Hill in Rome. In these forms of art, Michelangelo lived up to being the universal man, which meant developing yourself into an individual genious. Michelangelo reflected the Renaissance in the central panels on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. A particular piece of art showed how Adam and God became members of the same race of super beings, reflecting a mixture of Greek mythology and Christianity. The concept of combining pagan and Christianity is clearly shown in the central panel the Creation of Adam. God’s finger reaching out to Adam is transferring his godly powers to Adam .which depicts the Universal Man. Whereas Medieval art would consider placing man and God as equals to be wickedness, whereas the Renaissance ideal consider art depicting that men as gods was not evil. The Sistine Chapel showed that Michelangelo reflected the Renaissance, because he portrayed his paintings using shadows, boldness, depicting three dimensional objects. Causing the characters on the ceiling to come alive. In contrast to the Medieval age, art consisted of dull, flat without shadow or dimension. The Renaissance created an era where artists could express themselves through lively art. Art during the pre-renaissance era, the Medieval age, was greatly influenced by the Catholic Church forbidding nudity and/or equality between God and man. Michelangelo challenged the church by depicting his work in the nude, yet idolizing God. During the... ...hree dimensional, bold art that depicted man as real and as an god in his own right. . Michelangelo accomplished portraying the Renaissance era as a Greco-Roman culture of art along with the blessings of the Catholic church. The bleak formless Medieval art forms were gladly replaced by Michelangelo’s works of art. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kleiner, Tansey. Gardner’s Art Through The Ages Tenth Edition II Renaissance And Modern Art. Florida: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1996 Ventura, Piero. Michelangelo’s World. Canada: Milan 1989 Cumming, Robert. Great Artists The Lives of 50 Painters Explored Through Their Work. New York : DK Publishing, 1998 Britain Express. "Medieval Architecture and Art". 30 Dec. 2002 This Website is valid because the website states : Students researching articles in our History section have asked about the credentials of David Ross for citing purposes. Credentials include: BA in English History (Memorial University, 1979) Author of "The Essntial Traveler's Companion to Medieval England" (1066 Publishing, 1996) Kren, Emil. â€Å"Creation of Adam†. 12 Jan. 2003 This Website is valid because it had its own sources which it got its information from.

Is it Right for the Government to Accept the Fine Now? Essay

The notion of free will is important when deciding whether the government should accept the fine now or later. Free will suggests that human beings are autonomous and are therefore free to decide how to live their lives. This includes decisions, such as John’s, about whether to speed drive or not. However, the governmental officials are human as well and therefore also possess free will. If John is considered a free agent capable of being free than it must also be assumed that government officials, also free agents, are also capable of being free. One caveat that accompanies free will is moral responsibility. Ultimately, this is what this entire case centers on. Is it right for the government to accept the fine before John commits a speed driving offense? This question will explored further as it relates to free will as well as how it relates to personal identity and mind body ideas. The government does not have the right to accept the fine prior to the speed driving offense. Whether or not it is known that John will speed drive tomorrow is not really the issue in this case. The issue is that the government should not accept that a person is going to commit a crime and accept a fine for it before it occurs but rather the government should rely on their sense of free will in order to stop the crime from happening in the first place. The capacity for the government to have free will also means that the government has a moral responsibility to society to ensure that John does not speed drive tomorrow. Further, if John is going to disappear forever after he speed drives anyway, is it really necessary to accept the fine and hope that this punishment deters John in the future? The mind body principle emphasizes that all human beings have a physical body as well as the capacity to think, feel and remember. This idea is connected to the idea of free will because human beings go beyond their biological characteristics to become creatures who want certain things, hate certain things and think about certain things in different ways. Therefore, there is a scientific reason that can explain why John may choose to speed tomorrow just as there is a scientific reason why the government may choose to accept the fine before the crime. Similarly, there are also internal reasons why these choices may be made that have more to do with feelings and thoughts than biological processes. This is the heart of Descartes famous phrase, â€Å"I think, therefore I am. † In other words, the way that human beings choose to operate and conduct themselves are direct results of the ability to think. This brings up a very important point with regards to punishing John for a future event. Perhaps John will use his mind to decide that his moral responsibility entails his decision to not speed after all. If John decides that his capacity for free will obligates him to refrain from speeding, then the government would be wrong in their acceptance of a fine before the crime was committed. Finally, philosophical behaviorists believe that human beings rely on their minds to behave in reaction to their physical environment. If this is the case, then John may still change his mind about speeding, but more likely John will go ahead and speed in response to the physical environment that accepted a fine for a future crime. In other words, John will go ahead and speed because he had already been punished for the crime so nothing was stopping him from doing it. Under personal identity theories, Thomas Reid suggests that just because human beings have the capacity to remember events does not mean that these events happened to them. Further, he suggests that if human beings cannot remember something that happened a week ago, does this mean they have become another person? This has direct relevance to this case because it can be assumed that if the government knows someone is planning to commit a crime they can get the punishment out of the way before the crime is even committed. This brings up a larger issue. Will punishing humans before they commit a crime truly deter them from that future crime or will it produce a drastic change in society based on the notion that if punishment has already been served then the crime is an accepted part of society? While it is certainly logical to conclude that punishing someone before the crime occurs may produce a safer society, it is also logical to conclude that this type of justice system will create a crime laden distrustful society. For example, if the government finds out that John will be speeding in order to find his next victim to murder they may lock him in prison before the crime can occur. This will, conceivably, produce a safer society. However, it will, at the same time, create a society where human beings accept criminal activity provided that punishment is handed down before the crime. Ultimately, the government has no right to punish John for a speeding offense that will occur tomorrow. Personal identity is important here because it provides an outlet for John to make a different decision and obey the posted speed limit after all. In the end, the government could hand down a fine for a future speeding offense, but would this truly deter any future crime? The most logical answer is no because without punishing the mind of the criminal, then the punishment ultimately means very little. The capacity to have free will means that John is unlikely to change his behavior even if he is punished. Further, just because John will disappear after he speeds does not mean he ceases to exist just because this government can no longer see him. John will continue to exist in another place and his mind will ensure him that if he pays his fine for speeding then that offense will be accepted and he will be welcome to speed whenever he wants to. According to the idea of free will, the government would be more successful if they were to teach John why he should not speed and provide him with compelling reasons to refrain from doing so. John’s internal human desire to please those in authority would win out thus being more effective in curbing the potential for speeding behavior. Finally, free will does not mean John is allowed to speed nor does it mean that the government can punish John before he speeds. It does mean that John is free to drive wherever and whenever he wants to but the government is free to punish him if he does not obey the rules of the road.

I Am Famous, Therefore I Am - 1044 Words

â€Å"Far from empowering the viewer – much less the contestant – what these [reality] shows ultimately accomplish is the act of dehumanizing society so that the lowest common denominator is held up as the greatest possible accomplishment† (Sexton). While Timothy Sextons scathing comments about reality television may be a bit extreme, they are based on commonly held beliefs that reality television is abominable and will be (or is already becoming) the downfall of our society as a whole. Reality television may not be the most intellectual form of entertainment available, but I believe that the shift in societal norms from idol-worship to self-promotion has created an environment in which reality televisions takeover is the only natural†¦show more content†¦Why is this pattern of behavior so appealing and pervasive? Because that schedule is the same for everyone from the girl next door all the way up to Kim Kardashian, and it creates a kind of one-sided bonding. The people following celebrities online start to notice a trend. Kim Kardashian had an onion bagel for breakfast, and so did they. She loved the new episode of American Idol, and so did they. If over eight million people want to hear about every little thing that she does, they it stands to reason that they would want to hear about every little thing that you do, too. These â€Å"...changing attitudes toward privacy and self-expression† are the norm in todays world. â€Å"If you grew up with reality TV and the Internet, your default setting is publicity, not privacy.† (Poniewozik). It is this level of celebrity accessibility which leads to the lowering of standards of what exactly constitutes a celebrity. â€Å"Certainly in a celebrity-saturated society we’re more likely not only to be obsessed with the rich and famous, but also to suffer from the pangs of fame-hunger ourselves† (Eichelberger). Reality television is such a spectacular medium to s atisfy this hunger because it combines the two extremes of celebrity and average Joe. You can follow famous people at home (a la Newlyweds or the new Ice Loves Coco), and you can watch regular people rise to their own fame (Jon Kate, American Idol). So are reality showsShow MoreRelatedWhat Are The Main Factors For Achieving Happiness?904 Words   |  4 Pagesare the main factors in achieving happiness? I often think of these questions and ask to myself. With the emphasis on the quality of life, the majority of people are always aspiring to live happily, so people are doing their best to achieve happiness. However, happiness is defined variously by each person. Moreover, diverse factors have a direct or indirect influence on achieving happiness and sometimes people cannot predict factors. First of all, I would like to say â€Å"occupations† as one of theRead MoreAnalysis of Descartes Argument788 Words   |  3 Pageshttp://www.earlymoderntexts.com/pdf/descdisc.pdf. In his Discourse on the Method, Descartes essentially asked his famous question: how can we know that we are not deluded by a demon to think that we exist and he answered with his famous riposte Cogito ergo sum I think because I am I.e. the very fact that I am aware of my doubts informs me that I exist. He knows this from his intellect; therefore the mind is superior and more immediate to him than is the body. Descartes knowledge of his existence comesRead MoreSelf Reflection1153 Words   |  5 PagesI have been asked to write this essay as part of my assessment for the ILM Level 3 course that I am undertaking. This essay is to show my understanding of Leadership; the different styles of leadership and the effects it can have on staff. I am currently not supervising any members of staff but I aim to show how I have led in different situations. I am completing this course for my own personal development, as I would like to progress further in my career, now that my children are old er. ThereRead MoreNot Everything That You Want Can Happen1480 Words   |  6 PagesNot everything that you want can happen. I learned that the hard way since I have always wanted to live a happy childhood with my parents around friends and other family members. Of course my dream never happened because when I was a baby, my parents were sent to jail because they were accused of second degree murder. However, they were wrongly convicted since the majority of the jury hated my parents. What sucked about my parents being sent to jail is that the prisoners that hate murder decidedRead MoreThe Five Basic Principles Of Humanistic Education1318 Words   |  6 Pageswill occur with similar results. Conversely, punishment whether it be positive or negative, decreases the likely hood of previous actions occurring. Positive indicates the application of a stimulus; negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus, therefore learning is defined as a change in behavior as a result of stimuli (Behavi orism, 2016). Breaking it down in layman’s terms; learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior based on environmental conditions. The behaviorist movementRead MoreWriting Essay About Morocco1010 Words   |  5 PagesWelcome to diversity Every country from the world has its own culture and civilization. For my case I am from Morocco a country located in North West of Africa, widely open on the Atlantic Ocean from the west, and the Mediterranean Sea from the north, Morocco is the cradle of multiple culture and it is famous by its biodiversity when it comes to the languages spoken like in the next order Arabic, French, Berber, Spanish and English. Still what is amazing about this country is that you canRead MoreDescartes : The Father Of Modern Philosophy1055 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"†¦I find myself certain only of the fact that I am something.† (Descartes, â€Å"Meditations on First Philosophy,† 182) Rene Descartes is widely considered the father of modern philosophy. He created many new ideas about the self, which is something that has been contested since the dawn of philosophy. Even now, the world is nowhere near a unified thought on the soul. Descartes is most famous for addressing this, and is often summarized by the famous â€Å"Cogito Ergo Sum (I think, therefore I am)†DescartesRead MoreWhat I Have Learned About Hypothetical Syllogism Essay807 Words   |  4 Pagesand a conclusion. It will state if one thing will happens, another one will following. Therefore the third one is expected as well. The premises as well the conclusion have to be all in a logical form to be true. For example: This is a valid argument, and can be affirmed. Apparently, Vickie is married; she is wearing a ring. Therefore she is married. S: Vickie M: is wearing a ring P: is married C: Therefore, Vickie is married. It has always been one my dreams to be married, have a diamond ringRead MoreAlfred Nobel Essay 2898 Words   |  4 Pagespained all of his life. The purpose of my speech is to inform you who Alfred Nobel is. Although, I have not known Alfred Nobel in person, by reading his biographies, along with my great interest in history of inventors qualifies me to speak on this matter. Today I would like to inform you, who Alfred Nobel is; what he had done to be famous, and how he affected our world/society. In the beginning, I will start with some background information, including place, family and education. Alfred NobelRead MoreRen Descartes : Dualism Of The Mind And Body740 Words   |  3 PagesAccording to famous French mathematician and philosopher, Renà © Descartes, motion and interactions between the material and the immaterial are possible. He came up with a concept called dualism of the mind and body. His thesis being that mind and body are really distinct. He believes the mind, an immaterial thing, and body, a material thing, are two different beings that interact with each other. In one of his famous The Meditation, He says, [I am thinking, therefore I exist] taught me that I was a substance

Personal Statement Admissions to Masters (M.S.) in Mental Health Counseling - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 861 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/10/10 Did you like this example? I have a great passion for counseling, and my enthusiasm that is marked with lots of determination made me secure my current job as Shelter Manager at Interfaith Emergency Services. Under my obligation, I am responsible for creating and integrating a counseling program into our organization by partnering with licensed therapist such as Ignite Counseling, in which I am also a member of the board. My interest in the field has grown tremendously due to my managerial job at the homeless shelter. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Personal Statement Admissions to Masters (M.S.) in Mental Health Counseling" essay for you Create order In which it has given me an opportunity to work with individuals who have experienced huge traumatic events in their life. In this perception, I have always felt if I secured a Masters (M.S.) in Mental Health Counseling from the University of NOVA would enable me to accomplish the goals before me. However, I prefer the University of NOVA because it has elaborate programs in the study which are equipped with my specific areas of interest which include spirituality in counseling, trauma, and community mental health. In fact, my spirited efforts will expand the organization and be able to reach out as many people as possible in the society who are forgotten and are in need of healing. The university is also fortunate to have professors such as Dr. Tara Jungersen who have specialized in trauma, and community health. Another on the list is Dr. Shannon Karl who is an expert in spirituality and counseling. The reason why I believe I am the right person for this course is that despite the challenges that I faced that made me drop out of school, I managed to secure a job as a manager in 2016. I had graduated with a B.A in 1997 from the University of Miami, in which I had majored in Psychology and religious studies.   I have managed to spearhead the organization towards achieving its objectives. My duties and responsibilities included skill-training, vocational and recreational programs for residents, creating and monitoring treatment plans, and supervising the overall shelter operations. From the year 2014 to 2016, I worked as a counselor in Interfaith Emergency Services where I provided mentorship for the homeless population of Ocala. In the year 2011 to 2012, I worked as a Group Counselor in Miami Bridge Youth and Family Services where I facilitated group therapy for the children in the foster care system. I have also worked as a volunteer from 2010 to 2012 in Miami Rescue Mission. Subsequently, from the year 2007 to 2010, I participated in Dawn Angelia Photography which involved a Cuban documentary project. My primary duties and responsibilities were to create, and present photographic exhibition on the resiliency of the Cuban people encountered on my journeys. It also involved interviews about mental health care, obstacles towards personal advancement and show of many ways that Cuban people find their strength and perseverance. I also worked as a facilitator from 2004 to 2006 in The Wellness Community I participated in conducting interviews to individual members in order to assess their social, emotional capabilities and assisted support groups for cancer clients. In the year 2002 to 2005, I worked at the University of Miami as a staff therapist. The title of the occupation was Institute for family and individual counseling. I provided 850 hours of counseling sessions and received 150 hours of supervision from a licensed psychologist. To add to the list, from the year 2002 to 2003, I worked as a case manager in a working solutions program. In which I came up with personal inventories, career interests, psychological, and intelligence quotient tests. I also participated in vocational seminars and one-on-one training to meet the interests, needs, and abilities of the clients. Lastly, from the year 2000 to 2002, I worked as a Psychosocial Group Counselor in a Fellowship House in which I provided psychosocial assistance to clients diagnosed with schizophrenia. I also engaged in stress management, behavior modification, family sessions and group counseling. After graduating with a degree in 1997, I enrolled for a Masters of Psychological Education – Mental Health Counseling. Unfortunately, I was faced with some challenges that affected my learning process. In fact, I had progressed very well with the masters program; I had completed all requirements, such as supervision, practicing areas and passing the comprehensive examination. While I was only two classes to my graduation, I was hit by tragedy. My fiancà ©e was involved in an automobile accident that left him in a coma for several months until he succumbed to death. My grandfather also became ill with cancer, and I had to move to his home which was in a different state so that I can take care of him until his passing. That is the reason why I am applying for a Master’s program at this time, but I believe I stand in a good position than before because I have gained enormous experience and knowledge in the field. I am very much optimistic that I will get a chance to study the Mental Health Counseling Master’s program at the University of NOVA. This is because the course will be of very much relevance to my current job, I will be able to carry out extensive and intensive training, carry out group therapies, diagnostic testing and assessments in a more professional manner.

The Power of Media Essay - 1832 Words

Media has the supremacy to influence millions of individuals through countless formats. Media is everywhere in our daily lives, in television, motion pictures, and radio, influencing what society consume to what society wear. â€Å"Media is a very powerful tool capable of mobilizing people’s contemplations and ideologies† (Mock 2004). Most people find television an escape from their hectic daily lives. In our society today, there is an ongoing debate about violence in the media. Media violence has been an issue that most of the literature seems to avoid, but it is important in our lives. To give you perspective on just how much violence kids see on TV, consider this: â€Å"The average American child will witness 200,000 violent acts on television by†¦show more content†¦Two solutions that I would propose are for parents or any adult to reduce the exposure to media and change the impact of violent images that the kids are seeing. These two solutions will be affective in reducing media violence because if children are exposed to the television less, they will see less violence. This can be accomplished by enforcing limits on how much time children are glued to the screen, in addition to setting guidelines on what they can and can’t watch. This can be done through the V-chip technology. This technology was made to block programs based on their ratings category. With this device, parents can block any programs that show voluminous amounts of violence by adding a four-digit code. In fact parents don’t have to completely neglect the child during the blocking of programs. â€Å"To make the kids feel like they have some ruling in the decision. Parents can allow the children to select the programs within the family’s guidelines, while seeking to add positive programs and limiting negative ones† (Thomas 2010). On April 6-26, 1999 there was a random sample survey done to 1001 parents of children ages 2-17. Parents were asked 34 different questions regarding their opinion on television, the v-chip technology, and the T.V ratings system. The Kaiser Foundation and Princeton Survey Research Associates (PSRA) designed the survey. Based on the survey, 62 percent of theShow MoreRelatedThe Power of Media891 Words   |  4 PagesMedia has the power to strengthen the changes in our social, cultural, and political values. The improvement of media has increased the spread of ideas and has made communication more convenient. Television, Facebook, and Twitter are all considered mass medias because they provide people with entertainment, and it is where the flow of ideas is disseminated. In James Fallows essay, â€Å"Win in China!† he states that media encourages the Chinese to follow their dreams, such as becoming an entrepreneurRead MorePower of Media2736 Words   |  11 PagesPOWER OF MEDIA INTRODUCTION The media reaches over a 100 million people a day. Due to its tremendous audience and the impact it has, the media has been able to change public opinion, American policy, and even American history. The medias powerful influence can be seen through its portrayal of major events like the Vietnam War, The Spanish-American War, Watergate and several others. Through the years the role of media in publish affairs has changed as its influence has grown. TheRead MoreThe Power Of Social Media1141 Words   |  5 PagesGroundswell is a book that focuses on the power of social media and how businesses have to learn to harness this power to remain competitive. The book is full of practical ideas of how the groundswell works, why it is so important in today’s business world and how to use it to maximize your marketing potential. The book gives examples of how some well known companies use social networks, blogs and other online platforms to learn how customers feel about th eir products and also provides explicit tacticsRead MoreThe Power of and the Powers Behind Mass Media901 Words   |  4 PagesThe Power of the Powers Behind Mass Media Mass media is a powerful method of communication, entertainment, education, and socialization. The necessity and the relevancy of mass media becomes more prominent and urgent in the 21st century world, as the 21st century landscape is exceptionally more mediated than in previous eras of human history. It behooves producers, distributors, and consumers of mass media to understand and consider the interplay between power and discourse within the contextRead More Media Power and Media Bias Essay995 Words   |  4 Pages The powerful media barons have always altered broadcasts to achieve their personal or corporate agenda. What purpose does the media serve now? Measuring Bias on Television by Barrie Gunter has elaborated on the idea that news was originally set up to act as a national tool to stir thoughts. But is it? No! Is the media even enlightening the public now? After careful speculation of mass media and the communication world, I am under the impression that broadcasts have bee n used to entertain, frightenRead MoreThe Power of Social Media1480 Words   |  6 PagesCritical Analysis of the Power of Social Media Critical Thinking for Foundation Skills for Graduate Management Date submitted: November 29, 2011 Social media is not a new concept to our society, it has been effect from the 1950’s commencing with the phone era but has only recently been mainstreamed into our culture and business world. The late 1960s saw the existence of the internet as a network but the World Wide Web officially developed in 1991. The first social network was recognized inRead MorePower And Pleasure Of The Media1488 Words   |  6 PagesPower and Pleasure in the Media. By Andrew Clements 10185344 Figure 1. Media plays a significant role in controlling societies thoughts, actions and beliefs through complex messages and conventions. From the moment we’re able to see, think and understand, we interpret these messages and conventions instinctively. These in tern quite literally shape the way we think, view or perceive stereotypes– or in other words â€Å"contextualize† us. An example of this is evident in Figure 1, which depictsRead MoreThe Power Of Mass Media2392 Words   |  10 PagesRandy Butler Gender and Culture December 16, 2014 Final Project The Power of Mass Media in Todays World: The Perceptions and Realities Behind the Curtains It’s a Thursday night and Jessie is sitting down, munching on some chips and dip, and watching the weekly episode of Scandal with her friend Mary in the dim light of their living room. A scene comes on the television with two gay men intimately approaching each other, about to have sex. For a minute, the girls are tensely sitting in silenceRead MoreThe Power Of Large Media Corporations1426 Words   |  6 PagesUnderstanding the world around us is significant because it gives us the power of knowledge. The media provides us updates about events within our community and around the world. However, we are presented with the same biased points of view from various sources. Our options are limited because large media corporations have control over what we read, listen, and watch. These large media corporations have taken over the media industry, control how and what information is brought to one, and have aRead MoreThe Political Power Of Social Media923 Words   |  4 PagesAs of 2015, Facebook and Twitter have a total of 1.49 billion and 304 million active users respectively. This rapid rise and popularity of social media has allowed for the dispersion of ideas quickly and effectively on a global scale; in such a way that is unparalleled to any time in history. Therefore, the rise of social media has created a new, immensely powerful form of Civil Society Two. A form that has the ability to create political unrest and outright revolution in the modern states. In reference

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2014 Free Essays

In 2014, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Eric Betzig and William Moerner who, working separately, laid the foundation for SMLM. In essence, this method relies on the possibility to turn the fluorescence of individual molecules on and off. Scientists image the same area multiple times, allowing only a few interspersed molecules to glow each time. We will write a custom essay sample on The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2014 or any similar topic only for you Order Now By superimposing these images, a dense super-image can be resolved at the nanolevel. With the development of this technique, Betzig and Moerner were able to overcome Abbe’s diffraction limit, allowing for the production of high resolution images that, before SMLM, had not been possible. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Ernst Abbe and Lord Rayleigh formulated what is commonly known as the â€Å"diffraction limit† for microscopy. Roughly speaking, this limit states that it is impossible to resolve two elements of a structure that are closer to each other than about half the wavelength (?) in the lateral (x, y) plane and even further apart in the longitudinal (z) plane. Another consequence of the same diffraction limit is that it is not possible to focus a laser beam to a spot of smaller dimension than about ?/2. In the case of light (optical) microscopy, an important tool for the imaging of biological structures, this means that two objects within a distance between 400/2 = 200 nm (far blue) and 700/2 = 350 nm (far red) cannot be resolved. Although this is no real limitation for electron microscopy, in which the wavelength is orders of magnitude smaller, this method is very difficult to use on living cells. For instance, the length-scale of the E. coli cell is about 1,000 nm (1 ?m) which is larger than, but of similar magnitude, as the diffraction limit. This explains why, prior to the development of SMLM, it was difficult to image details of the internal structures of living bacteria. Perhaps this may be the reason why bacteria are considered to be â€Å"primitive† organisms with little internal structure. With single-molecule localization, more precise structures of bacteria and other small-scale entities, e.g. individual viruses, can be resolved. In SMLM, the photochemical properties of fluorescent proteins are exploited to induce a weakly emissive or non-emissive â€Å"dark† state. From the dark state, very small populations of fluorophores are returned to an emissive state by shining a weak light pulse that activates only a fraction of the fluorophores present. These fluorophores are excited and detected by glowing until they are bleached, at which point the procedure is repeated on a new subgroup of fluorophores. In order to be identified, however, the emission profile must exhibit minimal overlap in each image. The centroid position of each identified molecule is statistically fitted, often to a Gaussian function, and with a level of precision scaling with the number of detected photons. By imaging and fitting single emitters to a sub-diffraction limited area over thousands of single images, enough data is generated to create a composite reconstruction of all identified emitters. Single-molecule localization is a broad category consisting of specific techniques, such as STORM, PALM, and GSDIM, that operate using the conceptually similar procedure outlined above. The main difference between these types is the exact fluorophore chemistry used to turn the fluorescence of individual molecules on and off. The real breakthrough in single-molecule localization occurred in 2006, when Betzig and colleagues coupled fluorescent proteins to the membrane enveloping the lysosome, the cell’s recycling station. By activating only a fraction of the proteins at a time and superimposing the individual images, Betzig ended up with a super-resolution image of the lysosome membrane. Its resolution was far better than Abbe’s diffraction limit of 0.2 ?m, a barrier that previous microscopy techniques could not bypass. Since the ground-breaking discovery, SMLM has allowed organelles and single molecules to be resolved with an order of magnitude better resolution (with a localization accuracy of about 10 nm), in multiple color channels, and in 2D as well as 3D. Single-molecule microscopy allows quantification of the number of proteins within biological assemblies and characterization of protein spatial distribution, permitting the determination of protein stoichiometry and distribution in signaling complexes. For instance, for the ?2 adrenergic receptors, SMLM was used to show that the receptors are partially organized in mini-clusters only in cardiomyocytes but not in any other cell lines, and that these oligomers are not lipid raft related but rather depend on actin cytoskeleton integrity. Most importantly, the results of this study were different from those obtained from a similar report which used near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM), demonstrating the better precision of SMLM over other techniques. An additional important aspect of SMLM is that it can be used with other imaging techniques to elucidate receptor complex structures. In one study by Nan et al. (2013), the powerful sensitivity of FRET imaging to detect receptor proximity was combined with the capability of SMLM to obtain direct visualization of receptor oligomers in studying RAF, a strategic protein involved in RAS signaling. By means of cluster analysis, Nan and colleagues were able to show how RAF exists between an inactive monomeric state in the cytosol and a multimeric condition at the cell membrane when activated. The results from single-molecule localization confirmed the importance of dimer and oligomer formation in RAF signaling, even though the precise biological role of these different multimeric states is yet to be determined. The better definition of biological structures in the nanometer range as a result of SMLM has had most relevance in the field of neuroscience, where the morphology of neurons composed of dendritic spines and synapses is not suitable for confocal microscopy. For example, Dani et al. (2010) used single-molecule microscopy to image presynaptic and postsynaptic scaffolding proteins in the glomeruli of the mouse olfactory bulb to show distinct punctate patterns that were not resolved by conventional fluorescence imaging. Lastly, the high resolution of SMLM has enabled a deeper understanding of chromosome organization and genome mapping. Wang et al. (2011) determined the distribution of nucleoid-associated proteins in live E. coli cells, while Baday et al. (2012) were able to label 91 out of a total of 107 reference sites on a 180 kb human BAC gene with a 100 bp resolution. DNA mapping with such resolution offers the potential to uncover genetic variance and to facilitate medical diagnosis in genetic diseases. Nonetheless, there are a few challenges that come with single-molecule microscopy, namely errors in detection efficiency and localization uncertainty. Since using fluorescent proteins as labels involves the complications associated with protein expression, errors in this step (e.g. misfolding, incomplete maturation, etc.) can lead to the production of label molecules that are not fluorescent. This can directly affect counting studies, as the number of counted molecules can be underestimated. However, it is possible to use the obtained count (after correcting for blinking artifacts) for the counting. In one study that involved identification of protein complex stoichiometry by counting photobleaching steps, Renz et al. (2012) accounted for errors in detection efficiency using a binomial model, which was found to provide accurate results. Incorporating detection efficiency into a model for the ratio between monomers and dimers can also rectify efficiency errors. In terms of localization uncertainty, each photon from the emitter molecule provides a sample of the point spread function (PSF) from the molecule. Based on these samples, single molecule localization algorithms provide an estimate for the position of the fluorescent molecule. This estimate is prone to uncertainties, especially due to limited sampling (i.e. the limited number of photons obtained from the molecule). By ensuring that the imaged molecules within a frame are spatially separated enough so that the localization algorithms can correctly identify them, however, it is possible to minimize the effect of localization uncertainty on counting measures. Despite its potential shortcomings, single-molecule localization enables high resolution imaging on the scale of nanometers, which defies Abbe’s diffraction limit of 0.2 ?m. SMLM has been used to elucidate specific cell structures, as in Betzig’s visualization of the lysosome membrane, and receptor complexes, as in the case of RAF. The technique has also been used to refute results of similar studies that used different imaging protocols, as shown when determining the specific location of ?2 adrenergic receptors. Overall, SMLM has ushered in a new era of high resolution imaging that not only allows for accurate insight into individual cell and protein structure, but also enables identification of abnormalities in cellular processes that ultimately manifest as genetic diseases. How to cite The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2014, Papers

AP Analysis free essay sample

It is extremely helpful to use the numerical scale for quantifying pain severity for a patient in order to best asses a pain’s origin and severity, thus allowing for the most accurate diagnosis and pain treatment. 4. The term â€Å"putting a joint back into place† indicates moving the bone back into the synovial joint (its proper place). The â€Å"pop† sound occurs due to gas bubbles (nitrogen) escaping from the synovial fluid. 5. Both the shoulder joint and the hip joint are ball-and-socket joints, but the hip joint does not have as large a range of motion when compared to the shoulder joint. The shoulder joint is not just a bony socket, but is comprised of several tendons/muscles (as previously mentioned), synovial fluid, tendon sheaths and hyaline cartilage. Issue #3: Eye problems 1. The term for someone who has problems seeing close objects but can see objects far away is â€Å"hyperopia† or farsightedness. 2. Contrarily, â€Å"myopia† or nearsightedness is the condition of being able to see objects up close but not ones far away. We will write a custom essay sample on AP Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 3. David appears to have hyperopia, since he needs to hold a paper at arm’s length to be able to read. Issue #4: Muscle Physiology 1. The cause of the muscle cramping is hyponatremia or low blood sodium, which may have occurred by the young girl drinking a lot of water in the hot sun to try and stay hydrated, but which caused an electrolyte imbalance in her body, thus resulting in muscle cramps. 2. The muscle cramps will go away once she drinks the salt water, which will restore the necessary electrolyte balance in her body. Issue #5: Muscle Physiology Child Case History 1. The hereditary X-linked recessive disease characterized by progressive muscular weakness is called muscular dystrophy, or Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). 2. â€Å"Dystrophy† refers to the degeneration of, in this case, muscles. 3. Muscles in the leg involved in walking â€Å"on the toes† are the illopsoas, gastrocnemius and soleus. As these muscles weaken, the plantar flexors in the foot take over the job of walking. 4. The trunk muscles that weaken in certain cases of lordosis (sway back) and abdominal protuberance are the lower back muscles (erector spinae), hip flexors, abdominal muscles and the hamstrings.